# Converse of fundamental theorem of calculus

The fundamental theorem of calculus asserts that for a continuous real-valued function $$f$$ defined on a closed interval $$[a,b]$$, the function $$F$$ defined for all $$x \in [a,b]$$ by
$F(x)=\int _{a}^{x}\!f(t)\,dt$ is uniformly continuous on $$[a,b]$$, differentiable on the open interval $$(a,b)$$ and $F^\prime(x) = f(x)$
for all $$x \in (a,b)$$.

The converse of fundamental theorem of calculus is not true as we see below.

Consider the function defined on the interval $$[0,1]$$ by $f(x)= \begin{cases} 2x\sin(1/x) – \cos(1/x) & \text{ for } x \neq 0 \\ 0 & \text{ for } x = 0 \end{cases}$ $$f$$ is integrable as it is continuous on $$(0,1]$$ and bounded on $$[0,1]$$. Then $F(x)= \begin{cases} x^2 \sin \left( 1/x \right) & \text{ for } x \neq 0 \\ 0 & \text{ for } x = 0 \end{cases}$ $$F$$ is differentiable on $$[0,1]$$. It is clear for $$x \in (0,1]$$. $$F$$ is also differentiable at $$0$$ as for $$x \neq 0$$ we have $\left\vert \frac{F(x) – F(0)}{x-0} \right\vert = \left\vert \frac{F(x)}{x} \right\vert \le \left\vert x \right\vert.$ Consequently $$F^\prime(0) = 0$$.

However $$f$$ is not continuous at $$0$$ as it does not have a right limit at $$0$$.

# Four elements rings

A group with four elements is isomorphic to either the cyclic group $$\mathbb Z_4$$ or to the Klein four-group $$\mathbb Z_2 \times \mathbb Z_2$$. Those groups are commutative. Endowed with the usual additive and multiplicative operations, $$\mathbb Z_4$$ and $$\mathbb Z_2 \times \mathbb Z_2$$ are commutative rings.

Are all four elements rings also isomorphic to either $$\mathbb Z_4$$ or $$\mathbb Z_2 \times \mathbb Z_2$$? The answer is negative. Let’s provide two additional examples of commutative rings with four elements not isomorphic to $$\mathbb Z_4$$ or $$\mathbb Z_2 \times \mathbb Z_2$$.

The first one is the field $$\mathbb F_4$$. $$\mathbb F_4$$ is a commutative ring with four elements. It is not isomorphic to $$\mathbb Z_4$$ or $$\mathbb Z_2 \times \mathbb Z_2$$ as both of those rings have zero divisor. Indeed we have $$2 \cdot 2 = 0$$ in $$\mathbb Z_4$$ and $$(1,0) \cdot (0,1)=(0,0)$$ in $$\mathbb Z_2 \times \mathbb Z_2$$.

A second one is the ring $$R$$ of the matrices $$\begin{pmatrix} x & 0\\ y & x\end{pmatrix}$$ where $$x,y \in \mathbb Z_2$$. One can easily verify that $$R$$ is a commutative subring of the ring $$M_2(\mathbb Z_2)$$. It is not isomorphic to $$\mathbb Z_4$$ as its characteristic is $$2$$. This is not isomorphic to $$\mathbb Z_2 \times \mathbb Z_2$$ either as $$\begin{pmatrix} 0 & 0\\ 1 & 0\end{pmatrix}$$ is a non-zero matrix solution of the equation $$X^2=0$$. $$(0,0)$$ is the only solution of that equation in $$\mathbb Z_2 \times \mathbb Z_2$$.

One can prove that the four rings mentioned above are the only commutative rings with four elements up to isomorphism.

# Counterexamples around series (part 2)

We follow the article counterexamples around series (part 1) providing additional funny series examples.

### If $$\sum u_n$$ converges and $$(u_n)$$ is non-increasing then $$u_n = o(1/n)$$?

This is true. Let’s prove it.
The hypotheses imply that $$(u_n)$$ converges to zero. Therefore $$u_n \ge 0$$ for all $$n \in \mathbb N$$. As $$\sum u_n$$ converges we have $\displaystyle \lim\limits_{n \to \infty} \sum_{k=n/2}^{n} u_k = 0.$ Hence for $$\epsilon \gt 0$$, one can find $$N \in \mathbb N$$ such that $\epsilon \ge \sum_{k=n/2}^{n} u_k \ge \frac{1}{2} (n u_n) \ge 0$ for all $$n \ge N$$. Which concludes the proof.

### $$\sum u_n$$ convergent is equivalent to $$\sum u_{2n}$$ and $$\sum u_{2n+1}$$ convergent?

Is not true as we can see taking $$u_n = \frac{(-1)^n}{n}$$. $$\sum u_n$$ converges according to the alternating series test. However for $$n \in \mathbb N$$ $\sum_{k=1}^n u_{2k} = \sum_{k=1}^n \frac{1}{2k} = 1/2 \sum_{k=1}^n \frac{1}{k}.$ Hence $$\sum u_{2n}$$ diverges as the harmonic series diverges.

### $$\sum u_n$$ absolutely convergent is equivalent to $$\sum u_{2n}$$ and $$\sum u_{2n+1}$$ absolutely convergent?

This is true and the proof is left to the reader.

### $$\sum u_n$$ is a positive convergent series then $$(\sqrt[n]{u_n})$$ is bounded?

Is true. If not, there would be a subsequence $$(u_{\phi(n)})$$ such that $$\sqrt[\phi(n)]{u_{\phi(n)}} \ge 2$$. Which means $$u_{\phi(n)} \ge 2^{\phi(n)}$$ for all $$n \in \mathbb N$$ and implies that the sequence $$(u_n)$$ is unbounded. In contradiction with the convergence of the series $$\sum u_n$$.

### If $$(u_n)$$ is strictly positive with $$u_n = o(1/n)$$ then $$\sum (-1)^n u_n$$ converges?

It does not hold as we can see with $u_n=\begin{cases} \frac{1}{n \ln n} & n \equiv 0 [2] \\ \frac{1}{2^n} & n \equiv 1 [2] \end{cases}$ Then for $$n \in \mathbb N$$ $\sum_{k=1}^{2n} (-1)^k u_k \ge \sum_{k=1}^n \frac{1}{2k \ln 2k} – \sum_{k=1}^{2n} \frac{1}{2^k} \ge \sum_{k=1}^n \frac{1}{2k \ln 2k} – 1.$ As $$\sum \frac{1}{2k \ln 2k}$$ diverges as can be proven using the integral test with the function $$x \mapsto \frac{1}{2x \ln 2x}$$, $$\sum (-1)^n u_n$$ also diverges.

# Group homomorphism versus ring homomorphism

A ring homomorphism is a function between two rings which respects the structure. Let’s provide examples of functions between rings which respect the addition or the multiplication but not both.

### An additive group homomorphism that is not a ring homomorphism

We consider the ring $$\mathbb R[x]$$ of real polynomials and the derivation $\begin{array}{l|rcl} D : & \mathbb R[x] & \longrightarrow & \mathbb R[x] \\ & P & \longmapsto & P^\prime \end{array}$ $$D$$ is an additive homomorphism as for all $$P,Q \in \mathbb R[x]$$ we have $$D(P+Q) = D(P) + D(Q)$$. However, $$D$$ does not respect the multiplication as $D(x^2) = 2x \neq 1 = D(x) \cdot D(x).$ More generally, $$D$$ satisfies the Leibniz rule $D(P \cdot Q) = P \cdot D(Q) + Q \cdot D(P).$

### A multiplication group homomorphism that is not a ring homomorphism

The function $\begin{array}{l|rcl} f : & \mathbb R & \longrightarrow & \mathbb R \\ & x & \longmapsto & x^2 \end{array}$ is a multiplicative group homomorphism of the group $$(\mathbb R, \cdot)$$. However $$f$$ does not respect the addition.