Counterexamples around the Cauchy product of real series

Let \(\sum_{n = 0}^\infty a_n, \sum_{n = 0}^\infty b_n\) be two series of real numbers. The Cauchy product \(\sum_{n = 0}^\infty c_n\) is the series defined by \[
c_n = \sum_{k=0}^n a_k b_{n-k}\] According to the theorem of Mertens, if \(\sum_{n = 0}^\infty a_n\) converges to \(A\), \(\sum_{n = 0}^\infty b_n\) converges to \(B\) and at least one of the two series is absolutely convergent, their Cauchy product converges to \(AB\). This can be summarized by the equality \[
\left( \sum_{n = 0}^\infty a_n \right) \left( \sum_{n = 0}^\infty b_n \right) = \sum_{n = 0}^\infty c_n\]

The assumption stating that at least one of the two series converges absolutely cannot be dropped as shown by the example \[
\sum_{n = 0}^\infty a_n = \sum_{n = 0}^\infty b_n = \sum_{n = 0}^\infty \frac{(-1)^n}{\sqrt{n+1}}\] Those series converge according to Leibniz test, as the sequence \((1/\sqrt{n+1})\) decreases monotonically to zero. However, the Cauchy product is defined by \[
c_n=\sum_{k=0}^n \frac{(-1)^k}{\sqrt{k+1}} \cdot \frac{(-1)^{n-k}}{\sqrt{n-k+1}} = (-1)^n \sum_{k=0}^n \frac{1}{\sqrt{(k+1)(n-k+1)}}\] As we have \(1 \le k+ 1 \le n+1\) and \(1 \le n-k+ 1 \le n+1\) for \(k = 0 \dots n\), we get \(\frac{1}{\sqrt{(k+1)(n-k+1)}} \ge \frac{1}{n+1}\) and therefore \(\vert c_n \vert \ge 1\) proving that the Cauchy product of \(\sum_{n = 0}^\infty a_n\) and \(\sum_{n = 0}^\infty b_n\) diverges.

The Cauchy product may also converge while the initial series both diverge. Let’s consider \[
\begin{cases}
(a_n) = (2, 2, 2^2, \dots, 2^n, \dots)\\
(b_n) = (-1, 1, 1, 1, \dots)
\end{cases}\] The series \(\sum_{n = 0}^\infty a_n, \sum_{n = 0}^\infty b_n\) diverge. Their Cauchy product is the series defined by \[
c_n=\begin{cases}
-2 & \text{ for } n=0\\
0 & \text{ for } n>0
\end{cases}\] which is convergent.

A linear differential equation with no solution to an initial value problem


Consider a first order linear differential equation \[
y^\prime(x) = A(x)y(x) + B(x)\] where \(A, B\) are real continuous functions defined on a non-empty real interval \(I\). According to Picard-Lindelöf theorem, the initial value problem \[
\begin{cases}
y^\prime(x) = A(x)y(x) + B(x)\\
y(x_0) = y_0, \ x_0 \in I
\end{cases}\] has a unique solution defined on \(I\).

However, a linear differential equation \[
c(x)y^\prime(x) = A(x)y(x) + B(x)\] where \(A, B, c\) are real continuous functions might not have a solution to an initial value problem. Let’s have a look at the equation \[
x y^\prime(x) = y(x) \tag{E}\label{eq:IVP}\] for \(x \in \mathbb R\). The equation is linear.

For \(x \in (-\infty,0)\) a solution to \eqref{eq:IVP} is a solution of the explicit differential linear equation \[
y^\prime(x) = \frac{y(x)}x\] hence can be written \(y(x) = \lambda_-x\) with \(\lambda_- \in \mathbb R\). Similarly, a solution to \eqref{eq:IVP} on the interval \((0,\infty)\) is of the form \(y(x) = \lambda_+ x\) with \(\lambda_+ \in \mathbb R\).

A global solution to \eqref{eq:IVP}, i.e. defined on the whole real line is differentiable at \(0\) hence the equation \[
\lambda_- = y_-^\prime(0)=y_+^\prime(0) = \lambda_+\] which means that \(y(x) = \lambda x\) where \(\lambda=\lambda_-=\lambda_+\).

In particular all solutions defined on \(\mathbb R\) are such that \(y(0)=0\). Therefore the initial value problem \[
\begin{cases}
x y^\prime(x) = y(x)\\
y(0)=1
\end{cases}\] has no solution.

Field not algebraic over an intersection but algebraic over each initial field

Let’s describe an example of a field \(K\) which is of degree \(2\) over two distinct subfields \(M\) and \(N\) respectively, but not algebraic over \(M \cap N\).

Let \(K=F(x)\) be the rational function field over a field \(F\) of characteristic \(0\), \(M=F(x^2)\) and \(N=F(x^2+x)\). I claim that those fields provide the example we’re looking for.

\(K\) is of degree \(2\) over \(M\) and \(N\)

The polynomial \(\mu_M(t)=t^2-x^2\) belongs to \(M[t]\) and \(x \in K\) is a root of \(\mu_M\). Also, \(\mu_M\) is irreducible over \(M=F(x^2)\). If that wasn’t the case, \(\mu_M\) would have a root in \(F(x^2)\) and there would exist two polynomials \(p,q \in F[t]\) such that \[
p^2(x^2) = x^2 q^2(x^2)\] which cannot be, as can be seen considering the degrees of the polynomials of left and right hand sides. This proves that \([K:M]=2\). Considering the polynomial \(\mu_N(t)=t^2-t-(x^2+x)\), one can prove that we also have \([K:N]=2\).

We have \(M \cap N=F\)

The mapping \(\sigma_M : x \mapsto -x\) extends uniquely to an \(F\)-automorphism of \(K\) and the elements of \(M\) are fixed under \(\sigma_M\). Similarly, the mapping \(\sigma_N : x \mapsto -x-1\) extends uniquely to an \(F\)-automorphism of \(K\) and the elements of \(N\) are fixed under \(\sigma_N\). Also \[
(\sigma_N\circ\sigma_M)(x)=\sigma_N(\sigma_M(x))=\sigma_N(-x)=-(-x-1)=x+1.\] An element \(z=p(x)/q(x) \in M \cap N\) where \(p(x),q(x)\) are coprime polynomials of \(K=F(x)\) is fixed under \(\sigma_M \circ \sigma_N\). Therefore following equality holds \[
\frac{p(x)}{q(x)}=z=(\sigma_2\circ\sigma_1)(z)=\frac{p(x+1)}{q(x+1)},\] which is equivalent to \[
p(x)q(x+1)=p(x+1)q(x).\] By induction, we get for \(n \in \mathbb Z\) \[
p(x)q(x+n)=p(x+n)q(x).\] Assume \(p(x)\) is not a constant polynomial. Then it has a root \(\alpha\) in some finite extension \(E\) of \(F\). As \(p(x),q(x)\) are coprime polynomials, \(q(\alpha) \neq 0\). Consequently \(p(\alpha+n)=0\) for all \(n \in \mathbb Z\) and the elements \(\alpha +n\) are all distinct as the characteristic of \(F\) is supposed to be non zero. This implies that \(p(x)\) is the zero polynomial, in contradiction with our assumption. Therefore \(p(x)\) is a constant polynomial and \(q(x)\) also according to a similar proof. Hence \(z\) is constant as was supposed to be proven.

Finally, \(K=F(x)\) is not algebraic over \(F=M \cap N\) as \((1,x, x^2, \dots, x^n, \dots)\) is independent over the field \(F\) which concludes our claims on \(K, M\) and \(N\).

Pointwise convergence not uniform on any interval

We provide in this article an example of a pointwise convergent sequence of real functions that doesn’t converge uniformly on any interval.

Let’s consider a sequence \((a_p)_{p \in \mathbb N}\) enumerating the set \(\mathbb Q\) of rational numbers. Such a sequence exists as \(\mathbb Q\) is countable.

Now let \((g_n)_{n \in \mathbb N}\) be the sequence of real functions defined on \(\mathbb R\) by \[
g_n(x) = \sum_{p=1}^{\infty} \frac{1}{2^p} f_n(x-a_p)\] where \(f_n : x \mapsto \frac{n^2 x^2}{1+n^4 x^4}\) for \(n \in \mathbb N\).

\(f_n\) main properties

\(f_n\) is a rational function whose denominator doesn’t vanish. Hence \(f_n\) is indefinitely differentiable. As \(f_n\) is an even function, we can study it only on \([0,\infty)\).

We have \[
f_n^\prime(x)= 2n^2x \frac{1-n^4x^4}{(1+n^4 x^4)^2}.\] \(f_n^\prime\) vanishes at zero (like \(f_n\)) is positive on \((0,\frac{1}{n})\), vanishes at \(\frac{1}{n}\) and is negative on \((\frac{1}{n},\infty)\). Hence \(f_n\) has a maximum at \(\frac{1}{n}\) with \(f_n(\frac{1}{n}) = \frac{1}{2}\) and \(0 \le f_n(x) \le \frac{1}{2}\) for all \(x \in \mathbb R\).

Also for \(x \neq 0\) \[
0 \le f_n(x) =\frac{n^2 x^2}{1+n^4 x^4} \le \frac{n^2 x^2}{n^4 x^4} = \frac{1}{n^2 x^2}\] consequently \[
0 \le f_n(x) \le \frac{1}{n} \text{ for } x \ge \frac{1}{\sqrt{n}}.\]

\((g_n)\) converges pointwise to zero

First, one can notice that \(g_n\) is well defined. For \(x \in \mathbb R\) and \(p \in \mathbb N\) we have \(0 \le \frac{1}{2^p} f_n(x-a_p) \le \frac{1}{2^p} \cdot\ \frac{1}{2}=\frac{1}{2^{p+1}}\) according to previous paragraph. Therefore the series of functions \(\sum \frac{1}{2^p} f_n(x-a_p)\) is normally convergent. \(g_n\) is also continuous as for all \(p \in \mathbb N\) \(x \mapsto \frac{1}{2^p} f_n(x-a_p)\) is continuous. Continue reading Pointwise convergence not uniform on any interval