# A monotonic function whose points of discontinuity form a dense set

Consider a compact interval $$[a,b] \subset \mathbb R$$ with $$a \lt b$$. Let’s build an increasing function $$f : [a,b] \to \mathbb R$$ whose points of discontinuity is an arbitrary dense subset $$D = \{d_n \ ; \ n \in \mathbb N\}$$ of $$[a,b]$$, for example $$D = \mathbb Q \cap [a,b]$$.

Let $$\sum p_n$$ be a convergent series of positive numbers whose sum is equal to $$p$$ and define $$\displaystyle f(x) = \sum_{d_n \le x} p_n$$.

### $$f$$ is strictly increasing

For $$a \le x \lt y \le b$$ we have $f(y) – f(x) = \sum_{x \lt d_n \le y} p_n \gt 0$ as the $$p_n$$ are positive and dense so it exists $$p_m \in (x, y]$$.

### $$f$$ is right-continuous on $$[a,b]$$

We pick-up $$x \in [a,b]$$. For any $$\epsilon \gt 0$$ is exists $$N \in \mathbb N$$ such that $$0 \lt \sum_{n \gt N} p_n \lt \epsilon$$. Let $$\delta > 0$$ be so small that the interval $$(x,x+\delta)$$ doesn’t contain any point in the finite set $$\{p_1, \dots, p_N\}$$. Then $0 \lt f(y) – f(x) \le \sum_{n \gt N} p_n \lt \epsilon,$ for any $$y \in (x,x+\delta)$$ proving the right-continuity of $$f$$ at $$x$$. Continue reading A monotonic function whose points of discontinuity form a dense set

# A normal extension of a normal extension may not be normal

An algebraic field extension $$K \subset L$$ is said to be normal if every irreducible polynomial, either has no root in $$L$$ or splits into linear factors in $$L$$.

One can prove that if $$L$$ is a normal extension of $$K$$ and if $$E$$ is an intermediate extension (i.e., $$K \subset E \subset L$$), then $$L$$ is a normal extension of $$E$$.

However a normal extension of a normal extension may not be normal and the extensions $$\mathbb Q \subset \mathbb Q(\sqrt{2}) \subset \mathbb Q(\sqrt[4]{2})$$ provide a counterexample. Let’s prove it.

As a short lemma, we prove that a quadratic extension $$k \subset K$$ , i.e. an extension of degree two is normal. Suppose that $$P$$ is an irreducible polynomial of $$k[x]$$ with a root $$a \in K$$. If $$a \in k$$ then the degree of $$P$$ is equal to $$1$$ and we’re done. Otherwise $$(1, a)$$ is a basis of $$K$$ over $$k$$ and there exist $$\lambda, \mu \in k$$ such that $$a^2 = \lambda a +\mu$$. As $$a \notin k$$, $$Q(x)= x^2 – \lambda x -\mu$$ is the minimal polynomial of $$a$$ over $$k$$. As $$P$$ is supposed to be irreducible, we get $$Q = P$$. And we can conclude as $Q(x) = (x-a)(x- \lambda +a).$

The entensions $$\mathbb Q \subset \mathbb Q(\sqrt{2})$$ and $$\mathbb Q(\sqrt{2}) \subset \mathbb Q(\sqrt[4]{2})$$ are quadratic, hence normal according to previous lemma and $$\sqrt[4]{2}$$ is a root of the polynomial $$P(x)= x^4-2$$ of $$\mathbb Q[x]$$. According to Eisenstein’s criterion $$P$$ is irreducible over $$\mathbb Q$$. However $$\mathbb Q(\sqrt[4]{2}) \subset \mathbb R$$ while the roots of $$P$$ are $$\pm \sqrt[4]{2}, \pm i \sqrt[4]{2}$$ and therefore not all real. We can conclude that $$\mathbb Q \subset \mathbb Q(\sqrt[4]{2})$$ is not normal.

# The image of an ideal may not be an ideal

If $$\phi : A \to B$$ is a ring homomorphism then the image of a subring $$S \subset A$$ is a subring $$\phi(A) \subset B$$. Is the image of an ideal under a ring homomorphism also an ideal? The answer is negative. Let’s provide a simple counterexample.

Let’s take $$A=\mathbb Z$$ the ring of the integers and for $$B$$ the ring of the polynomials with integer coefficients $$\mathbb Z[x]$$. The inclusion $$\phi : \mathbb Z \to \mathbb Z[x]$$ is a ring homorphism. The subset $$2 \mathbb Z \subset \mathbb Z$$ of even integers is an ideal. However $$2 \mathbb Z$$ is not an ideal of $$\mathbb Z[x]$$ as for example $$2x \notin 2\mathbb Z$$.

# A function whose Maclaurin series converges only at zero

Let’s describe a real function $$f$$ whose Maclaurin series converges only at zero. For $$n \ge 0$$ we denote $$f_n(x)= e^{-n} \cos n^2x$$ and $f(x) = \sum_{n=0}^\infty f_n(x)=\sum_{n=0}^\infty e^{-n} \cos n^2 x.$ For $$k \ge 0$$, the $$k$$th-derivative of $$f_n$$ is $f_n^{(k)}(x) = e^{-n} n^{2k} \cos \left(n^2 x + \frac{k \pi}{2}\right)$ and $\left\vert f_n^{(k)}(x) \right\vert \le e^{-n} n^{2k}$ for all $$x \in \mathbb R$$. Therefore $$\displaystyle \sum_{n=0}^\infty f_n^{(k)}(x)$$ is normally convergent and $$f$$ is an indefinitely differentiable function with $f^{(k)}(x) = \sum_{n=0}^\infty e^{-n} n^{2k} \cos \left(n^2 x + \frac{k \pi}{2}\right).$ Its Maclaurin series has only terms of even degree and the absolute value of the term of degree $$2k$$ is $\left(\sum_{n=0}^\infty e^{-n} n^{4k}\right)\frac{x^{2k}}{(2k)!} > e^{-2k} (2k)^{4k}\frac{x^{2k}}{(2k)!} > \left(\frac{2kx}{e}\right)^{2k}.$ The right hand side of this inequality is greater than $$1$$ for $$k \ge \frac{e}{2x}$$. This means that for any nonzero $$x$$ the Maclaurin series for $$f$$ diverges.

# A group that is not a semi-direct product

Given a group $$G$$ with identity element $$e$$, a subgroup $$H$$, and a normal subgroup $$N \trianglelefteq G$$; then we say that $$G$$ is the semi-direct product of $$N$$ and $$H$$ (written $$G=N \rtimes H$$) if $$G$$ is the product of subgroups, $$G = NH$$ where the subgroups have trivial intersection $$N \cap H= \{e\}$$.

Semi-direct products of groups provide examples of non abelian groups. For example the dihedral group $$D_{2n}$$ with $$2n$$ elements is isomorphic to a semidirect product of the cyclic groups $$\mathbb Z_n$$ and $$\mathbb Z_2$$. $$D_{2n}$$ is the group of isometries preserving a regular polygon $$X$$ with $$n$$ edges.

Let’see that the converse is not true and present a group that is not a semi-direct product.

### The Hamilton’s quaternions group is not a semi-direct product

The Hamilton’s quaternions group $$\mathbb H_8$$ is the group consisting of the symbols $$\pm 1, \pm i, \pm j, \pm k$$ where$-1 = i^2 =j^2 = k^2 \text{ and } ij = k = -ji,jk = i = -kj, ki = j = -ik.$ One can prove that $$\mathbb H_8$$ endowed with the product operation above is indeed a group having $$8$$ elements where $$1$$ is the identity element.

$$\mathbb H_8$$ is not abelian as $$ij = k \neq -k = ji$$.

Let’s prove that $$\mathbb H_8$$ is not the semi-direct product of two subgroups. If that was the case, there would exist a normal subgroup $$N$$ and a subgroup $$H$$ such that $$G=N \rtimes H$$.

• If $$\vert N \vert = 4$$ then $$H = \{1,h\}$$ where $$h$$ is an element of order $$2$$ in $$\mathbb H_8$$. Therefore $$h=-1$$ which is the only element of order $$2$$. But $$-1 \in N$$ as $$-1$$ is the square of all elements in $$\mathbb H_8 \setminus \{\pm 1\}$$. We get the contradiction $$N \cap H \neq \{1\}$$.
• If $$\vert N \vert = 2$$ then $$\vert H \vert = 4$$ and $$H$$ is also normal in $$G$$. Noting $$N=\{1,n\}$$ we have for $$h \in H$$ $$h^{-1}nh=n$$ and therefore $$nh=hn$$. This proves that the product $$G=NH$$ is direct. Also $$N$$ is abelian as a cyclic group of order $$2$$. $$H$$ is also cyclic as all groups of order $$p^2$$ with $$p$$ prime are abelian. Finally $$G$$ would be abelian, again a contradiction.

We can conclude that $$G$$ is not a semi-direct product.